KENYA: The Maasai tribesmen of east Africa are reinventing themselves to survive in a changing Kenya, Rob Crilly reports from Nairobi
The Maasai of east Africa have long held a reputation as fearsome warriors. The ultimate test of their manhood is a daring cattle raid or the slaughter of a lion.
They have clung proudly to their traditions despite their pastures disappearing and successive governments urging them to give up their nomadic, polygamous lifestyle.
But new research suggests they are reinventing themselves as an urban tribe of entrepreneurs and ferocious security guards, as they find alternative ways of proving their prowess.
The study, conducted by researchers at Leicester University in England, found that Maasai men had initially felt emasculated when confronted by an increasingly affluent, 4x4-driving urban society.
Thomas Kibutu, who spent months living among the Maasai, said: "Colonial and post-colonial policies in Kenya have combined to strip Maasai men of their sense of place in society and, indeed, of their manhood - as defined by their own social values.
"As part of the 'civilising process' of the 'natives', Maasai men have had to readjust their values as modernity has invaded their lifestyles." The Maasai, numbering about 380,000, mostly in western and southern Kenya, are probably Africa's best-known tribe and their images adorn postcards and coffee table books.
For men, the most significant phase of their life is the transition from boy to warrior. Groups of boys aged about 14 would be circumcised and leave the village to live in a menyatta - a small livestock camp - where they would protect their cattle from raids and prove their manhood by hunting lions.
Their problems began in the mid-19th century, when a series of diseases swept through their herds. Two treaties in the early 20th century saw much of their traditional lands annexed for European farmers.
Today, vast areas of land in national parks are out of bounds and cattle are protected by legislation rather than trainee warriors.
Their women sell traditional bead jewellery to tourists, work which can often take them away from home for weeks.
As a result, said Mr Kibutu, an increasing number of Maasai men were finding new ways to define their masculinity.
Some work as executives in multinational companies or as entrepreneurs, using their salaries to buy herds of cattle and build luxury homes in their traditional villages.
"Maasai men are reputed for their fearsome qualities and therefore many gain employment as night watchmen in urban areas. Maasai watchmen are said to be ferocious, honest and hardy and reputed to strike first and ask questions later," he added.
"This allows them to gain some pride in their manhood as a protector and as a provider. It actualises their idea of excitement in combat and as a result of their earnings they buy cattle and therefore restore their status as herdsmen."
Daniel Ole Molell is typical of the new breed. He left his village over the border in Tanzania to build a new life in Nairobi.
Over a cappuccino at one of the city's plushest hotels, Mr Molell (36) described how he built up a chain of seven pavement kiosks selling chewing tobacco imported from India. He returns to the village at weekends when he has made enough money to buy materials for the home he is building.
Once that is finished, he plans to buy a herd of cows.
"I want to make a modern house so that I can live a good life in the village," he said. "Everything is changing. Our food is changing and people are leaving the village, but at the end of everything we will still come back to the village. I miss the community feeling, but here I can earn money and feel that I have proved myself."
Lekoko Ole Sululu, director of Terrawatu, a charity that helps Maasai villages adapt to the modern world, said many men, with only a basic education, had few options other than to become an askari - or nightwatchman.
But leaving home to work in cities is being seen increasingly as a new rite of passage.
"If you want to show you are strong now you show you have a degree or even a PhD. That has now replaced the time spent away from home when you would kill lions or steal cows," he said.