In August 1977, Steve Biko (30), a leader of the Black Consciousness Movement, was arrested and interrogated by South African police. Suffering from severe head injuries, he was driven, naked and in chains, to a prison in Pretoria, 800 miles away. There he died in police custody "on hunger strike". A post-mortem revealed brain damage and severe bruising, but no-one accepted responsibility for his death. Biko's fate was shared by countless others, including Nobel peace prize-winner Albert Luthuli in 1967. Denounced by South African authorities as a violent reactionary, Biko was described by liberal journalist Donald Woods as "quite simply the greatest man I have ever had the privilege to know". His funeral on September 5th 1977 was attended by 15,000 people, including diplomats from 12 Western countries.
In 1652, Dutch settlers established a colony at the Cape of Good Hope. These Afrikaners or Boers (farmers) evolved a new language called Afrikaans. They spread inland, taking land from the native Africans and relying on black slave labour to keep their rural enterprises afloat. In 1814 the British arrived, bringing their language and culture, and Indian labourers. The Boers moved north and set up two Boer Republics, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. Trouble, leading to war between the British and the Boers, broke out when diamonds and gold were discovered in these Boer territories. The Boers lost the war and the British set up the Union of South Africa in 1910.
In 1948 the Afrikaner-dominated Nationalist Party came to power, promising Apartheid. At this time blacks numbered 24 million, whites six million, "coloureds" (mixed race) two-and-a-half million, and Indians one-and-a-half million. Apartheid created one of the most rigidly divided societies in the world. Whites used 84 per cent of the land, blacks got 14 per cent, and the rest two per cent. Intermarriage between racial groups was banned. Transport and education were segregated.
Blacks had to carry passport-sized booklets at all times, to show they had permission to be in "white only" areas. Failure to carry a pass book could lead to imprisonment. Employment opportunities and voting rights for non-whites were further restricted. Political meetings by groups opposed to the government and black participation in strikes were outlawed. The freedom of the press was restricted.
The African National Congress (ANC) was set up in 1912 in opposition to the seizure of African land and lack of political rights for blacks. In the 1950s it used Gandhi-style tactics of non-violent resistance. Nelson Mandela led a campaign of strikes, boycotts, and demonstrations.
On March 21st 1960, blacks left home without their passes and presented themselves peacefully at police stations all over the country to be arrested. In Sharpeville, near Johannesburg, the police opened fire on a crowd of 20,000. They killed 69 and wounded 180, including women and children (70 per cent were shot in the back).
The ANC and the new Pan African Congress (PAC) set up military wings and went underground. South Africa was forced out of the Commonwealth because of disapproval of Apartheid. However, Britain and the US continued to trade with South Africa, because of the lucrative mines and factories there.
On June 16th, 1976, black children in Soweto township demonstrated in protest against poor school facilities and the fact they were being taught in Afrikaans. Police used guns and tear gas on them. The first child killed was Hector Peterson. The government estimated a death toll of 176, but it was undoubtedly more. Rioting spread across the country.
During the colonial shifts of the 1970s, South African whites became increasingly isolated, surrounded by countries opposed to Apartheid. There were raids against ANC bases in Angola, Mozambique, Botswana and Swaziland. In the 1980s, "coloureds" and Indians, but not blacks, were given limited representation in parliament. The US imposed sanctions on South Africa in 1986.
By 1989, President F.W. De Klerk's commitment to reform, and the combined pressure of internal opposition, economic strains and international sanctions, spelled the end for Apartheid. In 1990 Nelson Mandela was released from prison and was elected the first black president of South Africa in a sweeping victory for the ANC in 1994.
